NOTE: This article contains an old NP Nordic University Rankings from 2023. Link to the 2024 NP Nordic University Rankings
You might be considering studying in Scandinavia, researching on behalf of someone else’s studies, or just curious in general how the most prestigious universities in the Nordic region stack up against each other. Either way, you likely have the same question: What are the best universities in the Nordic region, and how do they compare?
There wasn’t really a good resource for this when this question popped up in my mind, so I set out to work out a good answer for this to hopefully help someone else down the road. In the most unbiased and scientific way I could think of, I ranked the 32 best universities in the Nordic region based on average independent international university rankings.
I’ve also included some basic info about each school so you can get a better sense of what type of school it is and what type of programs they offer.
After all, some universities specialize in one or two fields of study, while others may offer a wide selection of programs and possible degrees. It’s worth keeping this in mind as you browse the list.
ℹ️ Methodology:
To establish some type of scientific and unbiased ranking of the best Nordic universities, I wanted to collect as many reliable data points as possible. So I looked at the seven most established international university ranking methods, noted down how Nordic universities ranked in each of them, and then calculated an average ranking for each university that had been featured on at least one list.
The school with the lowest average ranking is considered the school with the best ranking.
Nordic Perspective’s Nordic University Rankings 2023
Detailed Nordic University Rankings Data Table:
For all the data geeks who would like to dig deeper and see exactly how each school ranks across all of the different ranking systems.
(Click “Show more” to display the full table, and scroll side-to-side to display all the columns)
| University | QS | THE | ARWU | CWUR | USNWR | CWTS-L | WRWU | Average |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karolinska Institutet | N/A | 39 | 42 | 35 | 48 | 144 | 126 | 72.33333333 |
| University of Copenhagen | 79 | 96 | 30 | 37 | 37 | 186 | 70 | 76.42857143 |
| University of Oslo | 102 | 119 | 61 | 77 | 90 | 282 | 92 | 117.5714286 |
| Aarhus University | 155 | 104 | 71 | 107 | 103 | 269 | 110 | 131.2857143 |
| Uppsala University | 124 | 131 | 78 | 88 | 113 | 353 | 101 | 141.1428571 |
| Stockholm University | 148 | 176 | 74 | 144 | 123 | 154 | 181 | 142.8571429 |
| University of Helsinki | 104 | 101 | 82 | 118 | 94 | 422 | 85 | 143.7142857 |
| Lund University | 87 | 116 | 175 | 141 | 95 | 327 | 113 | 150.5714286 |
| Technical University of Denmark | 99 | 185 | 175 | 196 | 161 | 112 | 158 | 155.1428571 |
| University of Gothenburg | 180 | 185 | 125 | 173 | 134 | 237 | 177 | 173 |
| KTH Royal Institute of Technology | 89 | 225 | 250 | 140 | 212 | 372 | 171 | 208.4285714 |
| Copenhagen Business School | N/A | 225 | 225 | |||||
| Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) | 369 | 125 | 182 | 266 | 187 | 225.8 | ||
| Aalto University | 112 | 225 | 350 | 335 | 275 | 239 | 211 | 249.5714286 |
| University of Bergen | 199 | 225 | 350 | 276 | 183 | 360 | 191 | 254.8571429 |
| Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) | N/A | 325 | 250 | 348 | 231 | 288.5 | ||
| Aalborg University | 326 | 225 | 350 | 354 | 241 | 332 | 280 | 301.1428571 |
| Chalmers University of Technology | 121 | 275 | 450 | 400 | 339 | 285 | 270 | 305.7142857 |
| University of Southern Denmark (SDU) | 309 | 275 | 350 | 361 | 255 | 310 | ||
| Linköping University | 329 | 275 | 350 | 362 | 350 | 238 | 317.3333333 | |
| Reykjavík University | N/A | 325 | 325 | |||||
| University of Turku | 295 | 350 | 381 | 327 | 338.25 | |||
| Tampere University | 414 | 275 | 418 | 354 | 365.25 | |||
| Umea University | 365 | 450 | 324 | 335 | 368.5 | |||
| University of Oulu | 377 | 275 | 450 | 446 | 422 | 394 | ||
| University of Iceland | 434 | 434 | ||||||
| Stockholm School of Economics | 450 | 450 | ||||||
| University of Jyväskylä | 358 | 565 | 461.5 | |||||
| University of Tromsø (The Arctic University of Norway) | 440 | 512 | 445 | 465.6666667 | ||||
| University of Eastern Finland | 525 | 452 | 441 | 472.6666667 | ||||
| Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT | 414 | 275 | 949 | 546 | ||||
| Åbo Akademi | 625 | 1089 | 857 |
Data sources:
QS: QS World University Rankings (2022)
ARWU: Academic Ranking of World Universities “Shanghai Ranking” (2021)
THE: Times Higher Education World University Rankings (2022)
CWUR: Center for World University Rankings (2021-22)
CWTS-L: CWTS Leiden Ranking (2016-2019)
USNWR: U.S. News & World Report (2022)
WRWU: Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (July 2021)
Show more +Karolinska Institutet 🇸🇪 (avg. 72)
Karolinska is one of Europe’s largest medical universities, and Sweden’s biggest hub for scientific research and innovation within the field of medicine.
📍 In Stockholm, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1810
👩🎓 6 500 students (2021)
💸 45 000 SEK per year Non-EEA student fee
For 2021, ARWU ranks Karolinska Institutet as the 42nd best University in the world, and the 12th best in Europe.
Karolinska is among the top seven schools in the world in the fields ”Nursing”, ”Public Health” and “Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences”.
KI also ranks #16 in the world and 4th in Europe in “Biological Sciences”, and #31 in the world and 10th in Europe in “Clinical Medicine”.
University of Copenhagen 🇩🇰 (avg. 76)
University of Copenhagen is a public research university founded in 1479, making it the oldest university in Denmark.
The school has six different faculties across four different campuses within Copenhagen.
📍 In Copenhagen, Denmark
⌛ Founded 1479
👩🎓 37 500 students (2019)
💸 Fr. 45,000 DKK ($10,860 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
The university is made up of four main campuses in Copenhagen:
- North Campus – The Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.
- City Campus – The Faculty of Social Sciences and Central Administration as well as Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science.
- South Campus – The Faculty of Humanities, the Faculty of Law, the Faculty of Theology, and the Faculty of Science.
- Frederiksberg Campus – The Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.
KU is regularly ranked as one of the best universities in Denmark, the Nordic region, and Europe.
University of Oslo 🇳🇴 (avg. 118)
University of Oslo is the oldest university in Norway, and was also the largest one up until 2016 (when NTNU, see #13 below, passed it).
When it was founded in 1811, it was modeled after the University of Copenhagen as well as the University of Berlin.
📍 In Oslo, Norway
⌛ Founded 1811
👩🎓 28 000 students
💸 Fr. 600 NOK ($74 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
OiU regularly ranks in the top among both Norwegian and Nordic universities and conducts education and research within areas such as:
- Theology
- Law
- Medicine
- Humanities
- Mathematics & Natural Sciences
- Dentistry
- Social Sciences
- Education
The school also offers interdisciplinary programs more tailored towards the modern world.
Aarhus University 🇩🇰 (avg. 131)
Aarhus University is a prestigious public university, and Denmark’s second oldest to boot. AU usually finds itself around the top 100 in international rankings.
📍 In Aarhus, Denmark
⌛ Founded 1928
👩🎓 38 000 students
💸 Fr. €8 000 EUR ($907 USD) Non-EEA student fee
Aarhus University specialises in the areas of Science & Technology, Arts, Business Administration, and Health but also offer a long list of other courses and programs.
There are around 3000 International students at the school, which profiles itself as an international university.
The University is the home of 15 scientific research centres (Centres of Excellence) funded by the Danish National Research Foundation, covering a wide range of different specialisations from DNA nano technology to Geoomicrobiology.
Uppsala University 🇸🇪 (avg. 141)
Founded in 1477 by Archbishop Jakob Ulfsson, Uppsala University is the oldest university in the Nordic region. The university regularly ranks in the top 100 globally, and has produced 15 Nobel Price winners, 8 regents, and 14 prime ministers.
📍 In Uppsala, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1477
👩🎓 41 500 students
💸 45 000 SEK ($4 900 USD) Non-EEA student fee
Uppsala University has been one of the more prestigious universities in the Nordics for more than 500 years, with famous alumni including Anders Celcius, Carl von Linné and Hans Rosling.
The university offers courses and programs within most subjects, but has an especially good reputation witin chemistry, biology, electrical engineering, English, modern languages, history, psychology, medicine and sociology (in each of these areas Uppsala ranks in the Top 200 internationally speaking per QS 2021).
And for those that appreciate beautiful campuses filled with architectural wonders, Uppsala does not disappoint.
It profiles itself as an international school and houses some
Stockholm University 🇸🇪 (avg. 142)
Stockholm University is a public university that is regularly present around the Top 100 best universities in the world in the various university rankings systems. It started as Stockholm Högskola (College) in 1878 and earned its University status in 1960.
📍 In Stockholm, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1878
👩🎓 33 000 students
💸 45 000 SEK ($4 900 USD) Non-EEA student fee
Stockholm University (SU) offers university studies in four colleges: Humanities, Law, Social Sciences, and Natural Sciences, and is ranked in the Top 100 of ARWU’s global university rankings.
Being a public university in Sweden, Stockholm University’s mission includes teaching, research, and pursuits to improve society as a whole.
SU offers degrees in 190 programs in total, with 75 master’s programs taught in English.
University of Helsinki 🇫🇮 (avg. 143)
The University of Helsinki was initially located in Turku (Åbo in Swedish) as the Royal Academy of Åbo, founded in 1640 when Finland was part of the Swedish Empire. It relocated to the capital in 1829, and is the oldest and largest university in Finland. There are courses and programs taught in Finnish, Swedish, and English at the university.
📍 In Helsinki, Finland
⌛ Founded 1640 (in Turku/Åbo)
👩🎓 31 600 students
💸 From $1 000 USD/year intl. student fee
Lund University 🇸🇪 (avg. 150)
Lund is one of northern Europe’s oldest and most prestigious universities and is located in Lund, Sweden (18 km north of Malmö, which is connected to Copenhagen, Denmark).
The university was founded in 1666 after the province of Scania had become Swedish, and is consistently ranked in the top 100 among most (but not all, hence the average of 150) of the university ranking systems.
📍 In Lund, Scania, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1666
👩🎓 28 300 (44 000 incl. satellite campuses) students
💸 45 000 SEK intl. student fee
LU offers 270 different programs and ranks in the top 50 in the QS World University Rankings within the areas of Geography (24th), Development Studies (32nd), Environmental Sciences (44th), Nursing (47th), Marketing (42nd), and Finance (47th).
Notable alumni include four Nobel Laureates, Carl Linneaus (before continuing at Uppsala U.), Samuel Pufendorf, Pehr G. Gyllenhammar, and Tage Erlander.
LU faculty is further associated with the creation of the first pacemaker, the discovery of the role of dopamine as a neurotransmitter, the determination of the number of chromosomes in humans, and the development of Bluetooth technology.
Tech. Univ. of Denmark 🇩🇰 (avg. 155)
DTU was founded in 1829 as the College of Advanced Technology (Den Polytekniske Læreanstalt) and is located 7.5 km north of the Copenhagen city center.
It is today among the best engineering institutions in Europe.
📍 In Northern Copenhagen, Denmark
⌛ Founded 1810
👩🎓 7 600 students
💸 €15 000 EUR ($17 000 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
DTU is a member of the EuroTech Universities Alliance, and specializes in polytechnic studies and innovation within fields such as electrical, construction, production, and mechanical engineering.
Research areas include biotech, transportation, environment and energy, electric power and energy, and information and communication technologies.
University of Gothenburg 🇸🇪 (avg. 173)
The University of Gothenburg was founded in 1891 and has around 37 000 students enrolled.
📍 In Gothenburg, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1891
👩🎓 37 000 students
💸 45 000 SEK Non-EEA student fee
The University of Gothenburg is one of the versatile universities in Sweden with eight faculties withing Creative Arts, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Humanities, Education, IT, Business, Economics And Law, And Health Sciences.
KTH Royal Inst. of Tech. 🇸🇪 (avg. 208)
KTH was established in 1827 and was a continuation of the School of Mechanics from 1798, and even further to the Laboratorium mechanicum which dates back all the way to 1697 and established by Swedish scientist Christopher Polhem.
Cph Business School 🇩🇰 (avg. 225)
CBS was founded in 1917 and the first full study program within the Accounting field was established within a few years of the start.
The campus is located in Frederiksberg near the city center.
Today, CBS has around 20 000 students between their bachelors and masters degree programs.
📍 In Stockholm, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1917
👩🎓 20 000 students
💸 €15 200 EUR ($17 300 USD) Non-EEA student fee
Copenhagen Business School offers degrees in economics and business administration, as well as other types of programs that combine business studies with social sciences and humanities, IT, philosophy, politics, language, sociology, and communication.
NTNU 🇳🇴 (avg. 226)
NTNU is the largest university in Norway with its main campus in Trondheim and smaller campuses in Gjøvik and Ålesund.
NTNU is the main university in Norway for education and research within the areas of engineering and technology.
In addition to its focus on engineering and natural sciences, NTNU also offers studies in medicine, psychology, social sciences, the arts, teacher education, architecture, and fine art.
NTNU is also collaborating closely with its R&D partner SINTEF, providing ample research opportunities for students and graduates.
Aalto University 🇫🇮 (avg. 250)
A modern university made up of six different schools with old and proud roots. Degrees are offered in areas such as Business, Architecture, Art, Design, Film, Television, Scenography, Media, Chemistry, Telecom, Engineering, Computer Science, and Math.
Since 2019, all of the Aalto University schools are located in Otaniemi, Espoo (10 kilometers, or 6.2 miles, from downtown Helsinki). The original Otaniemi campus buildings were designed by Alvar Aalto, who gave name to and attended the school.
📍 In Espoo, Finland
⌛ Founded 2010
👩🎓 7 600 students
💸 Fr. $13 841 USD per year Non-EEA student fee
Aalto University was founded in 2010 after a merger of three major Finnish universities: the Helsinki University of Technology, the Helsinki School of Economics and the University of Art and Design Helsinki
The Finnish government set out to create a university focused on innovation, composed of six schools and a unique and modern focus of multidisciplinary programs within areas such as technology, economics, design.
The school is named after Alvar Aalto, the famous Finnish designer, architect, and entrepreneur – who also happens to be an alum.
University of Bergen 🇳🇴 (avg. 255)
University of Bergen has its roots in many different academic institutions in Bergen dating back to 1825, but was officially founded in 1946.
It is considered one of Norway’s four “established universities” and covers all the fields of a “classical university”.
The university offers programs within Fine Art, Music and Design, Humanities, Law, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Medicine, Psychology, and Social Sciences.
📍 In Bergen, Norway
⌛ Founded 1946
👩🎓 18 000 students
💸 Fr. 600 NOK ($74 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
University of Bergen is consistently ranked in the top one percent among the world’s universities (often in the top 200), and especially high in fields such as earth and marine sciences.
Formally speaking, University of Bergen is considered Norway’s second oldest University.
SLU 🇸🇪 (avg. 289)
SLU is a public university responsible for covering research and education in all Agricultural Sciences in Sweden.
The main campus and administration is located in Ultuna, Uppsala, but the school has external campuses in Umeå and Alnarp, along with a bunch of additional research and education centers spread around the nation.
SLU offers degrees in Landscape Planning, Horticulture and Agricultural Sciences, Natural Resources and Agriculture Sciences, Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, and Forest Sciences.
According to QS, the university ranks among the top three universities in the world within Agricultural Sciences, and in the top 30 within Veterinary Medicine. SLU also scores highly in ARWU’s ranking within Agricutlural Sciences, Veterinary Medicine, and Ecology, while the NTU ranks SLU 16th in the world within Agriculture, 9th within Plant & Animal Science, and 20th within Environment/Ecology.
Aalborg University 🇩🇰 (avg. 301)
Aalborg University is a modern university similar to Aalto University in Finland, with a interdisciplinary and inter-faculty structure offering an experimental curriculum based on an interdisciplinary basic course with subsequent specialisation within Humanities, Social Sciences, IT & Design, Engineering & Science, and Medicine.
📍 In Aalborg, Denmark
⌛ Founded 1974
👩🎓 20 200 students
💸 €15 000 EUR ($17 000 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
AAU ranked #6 in the world in the Times Higher Education Impact Rankings, measuring the impact of universities according to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, making it the highest-ranked university in Europe.
In general rankings, the school hovers around the top 300 universities in the world, and offers subjects within design, engineering, exact sciences, information technology, humanities, medicine, and social sciences.
Chalmers 🇸🇪 (avg. 306)
Chalmers was founded in 1829 with the purpose of creating an “industrial school”, and started out as a private institution before turning public in 1937.
📍 In Gothenburg, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1829
👩🎓 11 000 students
💸 45 000 SEK Non-EEA student fee
Chalmers offers studies within the following fields:
- Architecture and Civil Engineering
- Biology and Biological Engineering
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Communication and Learning in Science
- Computer Science and Engineering
- Electrical Engineering
- Industrial and Materials Science
- Mathematical Sciences
- Mechanics and Maritime Sciences
- Microtechnology and Nanoscience
- Physics
- Space, Earth and Environment
- Technology Management and Economics
SDU 🇩🇰 (avg. 310)
SDU was founded in 1998 but has its roots in Odense University from 1966.
IT offers studies within the fields of Humanities, Science, Engineering, Social Sciences, and Health Sciences.
📍 In Odense, Denmark
⌛ Founded 1998
👩🎓 29 700 students
💸 €15 000 EUR ($17 000 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
SDU offers a range of disciplines as well as a broad selection of business and engineering studies, with a focus on areas such as communication, information technology, and biotechnology.
The university is also the only university in Scandinavia that offers a degree in chiropractic studies.
Linköping University 🇸🇪 (avg. 317)
Linköping University is a public university conducting research and studies within the fields of technology, medicine, and humanities, natural, educational, social and behavioural sciences.
📍 In Linköping, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1969
👩🎓 32 000 students
💸 45 000 SEK Non-EEA student fee
Linköping specializes in fields such as medicine, business and economics, teacher education, and engineering, and receives research grants from the government within five strategic research areas: IT & mobile communication, materials science, security & emergency management, e-Science, and transport research.
Much like the Aalborg U (Denmark) and Aalto U (Finland), LIU has a modern focus and offering based on interdisciplinary studies and programs.
Reykjavík University 🇮🇸 (avg. 325)
/ Reykjavík University (RU)
RU is the biggest private university in Iceland, and was founded in 1998.
📍 In Reykjavík, Iceland
⌛ Founded 1988
👩🎓 3 500 students
💸 45 000 SEK Non-EEA student fee
The university is divided into two schools:
School of Social Sciences
- Department of Business Administration
- Department of Law
- Department of Sport Science
- Department of Psychology
School of Technology
- Department of Computer Science
- Department of Engineering
- Department of Applied Engineering
University of Turku 🇫🇮 (avg. 338)
UTU is the third-largest university in Finland, and was founded in 1920 making it the world’s oldest Finnish-speaking university.
📍 In Turku/Åbo, Finland
⌛ Founded 1920
👩🎓 19 700 students
💸 Fr. $1 000 USD per year Non-EEA student fee
UTU is split up into 6 schools:
School of Humanities
School of Law
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
School of Medicine
School of Education
School of Social Sciences
Turku School of Economics
Tampere University 🇫🇮 (avg. 365)
TAU was founded in 2019 as a result of merging University of Tampere and Tampere University of Technology (in turn founded in 1925 and 1965 respectively).
📍 In Tampere, Finland
⌛ Founded 2019
👩🎓 20 600 students
💸 Fr. €8 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
Umeå University 🇸🇪 (avg. 369)
Umeå University was founded in 1965 and is split up into eight campuses as well as the University Hospital of Umeå.
Umeå University is divided into eight Schools:
- Umeå Institute of Design – UID offers a Bachelor program, master programmes in Transportation Design, Interaction Design and Advanced Industrial Design, and doctoral studies. It’s the only Swedish school on BusinessWeek’s top 60 list of design schools in the world.
- Umeå Institute of Technology – The Institute offers a wide range of study programmes and is a member of the CDIO Initiative.
- Umeå School of Architecture – Internationally orientated laboratory of sustainable architectural development.
- Umeå School of Business and Economics (a.k.a. USBE) – The school offers one Bachelor program, four undergraduate programs (Civilekonomprogram) seven master’s degrees programs (included the Erasmus Mundus Master in Strategic Project Management-program), as well as a number of doctoral programs.
- Umeå School of Education (a.k.a. USE) – was inaugurated in January 2009 to replace the former Faculty of Teacher Education.
- Umeå School of Fine Arts – was started in 1987 in a former factory next to the Umeälven river. Every year 12 new students are accepted to the school.
- Umeå School of Sport Sciences – offers higher education to active athletes, but also sports related research in sports medicine and sport psychology.
- Umeå University School of Restaurant and Culinary Arts – started in 1996 with the gastronomy program, and gives courses in leadership and hospitality management.
University of Oulu 🇫🇮 (avg. 394)
University of Oulo is split into two campuses: the main campus in Linnanmaa (5 km north of Oulo), and the Faculty of Medicine & Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine at the Kontinkangas Campus (2 km southeast of Oulo).
📍 In Oulo, Finland
⌛ Founded 1958
👩🎓 13 000 students
💸 Fr. €10 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
↗️ Website
University of Iceland 🇮🇸 (avg. 434)
University of Iceland offers studies within areas such as social sciences, humanities, law, medicine, natural sciences, engineering and teacher education.
📍 In Reykjavík, Iceland
⌛ Founded 1911
👩🎓 14 000 students
💸 ISK 75 000 ($600 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
Stockholm School of Econ. 🇸🇪 (avg. 450)
SSE is a private business school offering studies within the fields of Business, International Business, Economics, Finance, Accounting, and Management.
📍 In Stockholm, Sweden
⌛ Founded 1909
👩🎓 1 800 students
💸 Fr. 100 000 SEK Non-EEA student fee
The school offers an especially notable Masters in Management (ranked 7th in the world), and Masters in Finance (ranked 18th in the world).
University of Jyväskylä 🇫🇮 (avg. 462)
📍 In Jyväskylä, Finland
⌛ Founded 1863
👩🎓14 000 students
💸 Fr. €10 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
University of Tromsø 🇳🇴 (avg. 466)
📍 In Tromsø, Norway
⌛ Founded 1972
👩🎓 17 800 students
💸 Fr. 600 NOK ($74 USD) per year Non-EEA student fee
University of E. Finland 🇫🇮 (avg. 473)
📍 In Joensuu and Kuopio, Finland
⌛ Founded 2010
👩🎓 15 000 students
💸 Fr. €10 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
LUT 🇫🇮 (avg. 546)
📍 In Lappeenranta, Lahti, Finland
⌛ Founded 1969
👩🎓 5 200 students
💸 Fr. €10 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
Åbo Akademi 🇫🇮 (avg. 857)
📍 In Turku/Åbo, Finland
⌛ Founded 1918
👩🎓 5 500 students
💸 Fr. €10 000 EUR per year Non-EEA student fee
Note: A higher average ranking on international university ranking services does not always equate to a higher post-graduation average salary. Studies have shown that your average salary depends more on your individual area of study.
Sources:
https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2022
https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2022/world-ranking
https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2021
https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings
https://www.webometrics.info/en/WORLD
